Clay mineral formation and transformation in non-marine environments and implications for Early Cretaceous palaeoclimatic evolution: The Weald Basin, Southeast England
Oladapo O. Akinlotana,*, Ogechukwu A. Moghalub, Stuart J. Hatterc, Sunday Okunuwadjed, Lorna Anquilanoe, Uche Onwukwee, Safiyeh Haghanie, Okwudiri A. Anyiamb, Byami A. Jollyf
aDepartment of Geography, University of Sussex, Falmer, Brighton, BN1 9SJ, United Kingdom; bDepartment of Geology, University of Nigeria, Nsukka Road, 410001, Nsukka, Nigeria; cBadley Ashton and Associates Ltd, Winceby House, Winceby, Horncastle, Lincolnshire, LN9 6PB, United Kingdom; dDepartment of Geology and Geophysics, School of Geosciences, Kings' College, University of Aberdeen, Scotland, AB24 3UE, United Kingdom; eExperimental Techniques Centre, Brunel University London, Bragg 16, Brunel University London, Uxbridge, UB8 3PH, United Kingdom; fDepartment of Geology, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria
Abstract Analyses of clay minerals within the Early Cretaceous Weald Basin, Southeast England reveal kaolinite, illite and chlorite as the main detrital clay minerals while glauconite and smectite are subordinates. A kaolinite-rich assemblage which characterized the sand-dominated Ashdown and Tunbridge Wells Sand formations and an illite-dominated assemblage associated mostly with the Wadhurst Clay and Weald Clay formations are recognized. Kaolinite was enriched in the Ashdown and Tunbridge Wells Sand formations during warm and humid climate with high precipitation that encouraged chemical weathering and leaching, while cold and dry conditions favoured the concentration of illite in the Wadhurst Clay and Weald Clay formations. Rainfall patterns associated with warm climate were drastically reduced during the drier climatic conditions. Most clay minerals are detrital in origin, with chlorite being more prominent than previously recognized. Contrary to previous studies and assumptions, this study revealed that authigenic clay minerals are present in the Hastings Beds, with vermiform and mica-replacive kaolinite being the most common, consistent with humid depositional environments. Isolated authigenic illite is also present, along with a chloritized grain, providing evidence for mesodiagenesis. The absence of dickite and occurrence of kaolinite, suggest that authigenic illite formed in relatively shallow burial conditions, indicating a maximum burial depth of 2500 m-3000 m, about 1000 m deeper than previous estimates of 1500 m-2000 m. Authigenic clay minerals are absent in the Weald Clay Formation possibly because of hindered flow of meteoric water and limited growth space for authigenic minerals. This study is significant in: 1) reinforcing multiple methods to facilitate a robust and balanced knowledge of formation and transformation of clay minerals; 2) investigating detrital and authigenic clay mineral assemblages when assessing the palaeoenvironments of sedimentary basins.
. Clay mineral formation and transformation in non-marine environments and implications for Early Cretaceous palaeoclimatic evolution: The Weald Basin, Southeast England[J]. Journal of Palaeogeography, 2022, 11(3): 387-409.
. Clay mineral formation and transformation in non-marine environments and implications for Early Cretaceous palaeoclimatic evolution: The Weald Basin, Southeast England[J]. Journal of Palaeogeography, 2022, 11(3): 387-409.
[1] Ahmed W.,2007. Comparison of authigenic minerals in sandstones and interbedded mudstones, siltstones and shales, East Berlin Formation, Hartford Basin, USA.Bulletin of the Chemical Society of Ethiopia, 21, 39-61. [2] Akinlotan O.O.,2015. The sedimentology of the Ashdown Formation and the Wadhurst Clay Formation, Southeast England. Ph.D. Dissertation, School of Environment and Technology, University of Brighton, United Kingdom, 258 pp. [3] Akinlotan O.O.,2016. Porosity and permeability of the English (Lower Cretaceous) sandstones.Proceedings of the Geologists' Association, 127, 681-690. [4] Akinlotan O.O.,2017a. Mineralogy and palaeoenvironments: The Weald Basin (Early Cretaceous), Southeast England.The Depositional Record, 3, 187-200. [5] Akinlotan O.O.,2017b. Geochemical analysis for palaeoenvironmental interpretations — a case study of the English Wealden (Lower Cretaceous, Southeast England).Geological Quarterly, 61, 227-238. [6] Akinlotan O.O.,2018. Multi-proxy approach to palaeoenvironmental modelling: The English Lower Cretaceous Weald Basin.Geological Journal, 53, 316-335. [7] Akinlotan O.O.,2019. Sideritic ironstones as indicators of depositional environments in the Weald Basin (Early Cretaceous), SE England.Geological Magazine, 156, 533-546. [8] Akinlotan O.O., Adepehin E.J., Rogers G.H., Drumm E.C., 2021b. Provenance, palaeoclimate and palaeoenvironments of a non-marine Lower Cretaceous facies: Petrographic evidence from the Wealden Succession.Sedimentary Geology, 415, 105848. [9] Akinlotan O.O., Okunuwadje S.E., Ojo O.J., Akinmosin A., Adekeye O.A., Ikhane P.R., in press. Basin inversion controls on diagenetic evolution of the Lower Cretaceous non-marine succession: The English Wealden sandstones.Basin Research. [10] Akinlotan O.O., Rogers G.H., 2021. Heavy mineral constraints on the provenance evolution of the English Lower Cretaceous (Wessex Basin).Marine and Petroleum Geology, 127, 104952. [11] Akinlotan O.O., Rogers G.H., Okunuwadje S.E., 2021a. Provenance evolution of the English Lower Cretaceous Weald Basin and implications for palaeogeography of the Northwest European Massifs: Constraints from heavy mineral assemblages.Marine and Petroleum Geology, 127, 104953. [12] Alizai A., Hillier S., Clift P.D., Giosan L., Hurst A., VanLaningham S., Macklin M., 2012. Clay mineral variations in Holocene terrestrial sediments from the Indus Basin. Quaternary Research, 77, 368-381. [13] Allen P.,1975. Wealden of the Weald: A new model.Proceedings of the Geologists' Association, 86, 389-437. [14] Allen P.,1981. Pursuit of Wealden models.Journal of the Geological Society, 138, 375-405. [15] Allen P.,1989. Wealden research — Ways ahead. Proceedings of the Geologists' Association, 100, 529-564. [16] Allen P.,1998. Purbeck-Wealden (Early Cretaceous) climates.Proceedings of the Geologists' Association, 109, 197-236. [17] Allen P., Wimbledon W., 1991. Correlation of NW European Purbeck-Wealden (nonmarine Lower Cretaceous) as seen from the English type-areas.Cretaceous Research, 12, 511-526. [18] Anderson F.W.,1975. The sequence of ostracod faunas in the Wadhurst Clay of the Cooden borehole.Report of the Institute of Geological Sciences, 75(12), 20-33. [19] Anderson K.F., Wall F., Rollinson G.K., Moon C.J., 2014. Quantitative mineralogical and chemical assessment of the Nkout iron ore deposit, Southern Cameroon.Ore Geology Reviews, 62, 25-39. [20] Batten D.J.,1982. Palynofacies and salinity in the Purbeck and Wealden of southern England. In: Banner, F.T., Lord, A.R., (Eds.). Aspects of Micropalaeontology. George and Allen Unwin, London, pp. 278-308. [21] Batten D.J., Dutta R.J., Knobloch E., 1996. Differentiation, affinities and palaeoenvironmental significance of the megaspores Arcellites and Bohemisporites in Wealden and other Cretaceous successions.Cretaceous Research, 17, 39-65. [22] Beaufort D., Cassagnabere A., Petit S., Lanson B., Berger G., Lacharpagne J., Johansen H., 1998. Kaolinite-to-dickite reaction in sandstone reservoirs.Clay Minerals, 33, 297-316. [23] Berger G., Lacharpagne J.-C., Velde B., Beaufort D., Lanson B., 1995. Mécanisme et contraintes cinétiques des réactions d'illitisation d'argiles sédimentaires, déduits de modélisations d'interaction eau-roche.Bulletin des Centres de Recherches Exploration-Production Elf-Aquitaine, 19, 225-234. [24] Bjørlykke K.,2014. Relationships between depositional environments, burial history and rock properties. Some principal aspects of diagenetic process in sedimentary basins.Sedimentary Geology, 301, 1-14. [25] Bjørlykke K., Aagaard P., 1992. Clay minerals in North Sea sandstones. In: Houseknecht, D.W., Pittman, E.D., (Eds.). Origin, Diagenesis, and Petrophysics of Clay Minerals in Sandstones. SEPM Special Publication, Tulsa, Oklahoma, pp. 65-80. [26] Bougeault C., Pellenard P., Deconinck J.-F., Hesselbo S.P., Dommergues J.-L., Bruneau L., Cocquerez T., Laffont R., Huret E., Thibault N., 2017. Climatic and palaeoceanographic changes during the Pliensbachian (Early Jurassic) inferred from clay mineralogy and stable isotope (CO) geochemistry (NW Europe).Global and Planetary Change, 149, 139-152. [27] Bray R.J., Duddy I.R., Green P.F., 1998. Multiple heating episodes in the Wessex Basin: Implications for geological evolution and hydrocarbon generation.Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 133, 199-213. [28] Burley, S.D., Macquaker, J.H.S., 1992. Authigenic clays, diagenetic sequences and conceptual diagenetic models in contrasting basin-margin and basin center North Sea Jurassic sandstones and mudstones. In: Houseknecht, D.W., Pittman, E.D., (Eds.). Origin, Diagenesis and Petrophysics of Clay Minerals in Sandstones. SEPM Special Publication, 47, pp. 81-110. [29] Chadwick R.A.,1986. Extension tectonics in the Wessex Basin, southern England.Journal of the Geological Society, 143, 465-488. [30] Chamley H.,1989. Clay Formation through Weathering. In: Chamley, H., (Ed.). Clay Sedimentology. Springer, pp. 21-50. [31] De Segonzac, G.D., 1970. The transformation of clay minerals during diagenesis and low-grade metamorphism: A review.Sedimentology, 15, 281-346. [32] Eberl D.D.,1984. Clay mineral formation and transformation in rocks and soils. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series A, 311, 241-257. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.1984.0026. [33] Edahbi M., Benzaazoua M., Plante B., Doire S., Kormos L., 2018. Mineralogical characterization using QEMSCAN® and leaching potential study of REE within silicate ores: A case study of the Matamec project, Québec, Canada.Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 185, 64-73. [34] Föllmi K.B.,2012. Early Cretaceous life, climate and anoxia. Cretaceous Research, 35, 230-257. [35] Gier S., Worden R.H., Krois P., 2018. Comparing clay mineral diagenesis in interbedded sandstones and mudstones, Vienna Basin, Austria. In: Armitage, P.J., Butcher, A.R., Churchill, J.M., Csoma, A.E., Hollis, C., Lander, R.H., Omma, J.E., Worden, R.H., (Eds.). Reservoir quality of clastics and carbonate rocks: Analysis, modelling and prediction. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, pp. 389-403. [36] Hallam A., Grose J.A., Ruffell A.H., 1991. Palaeoclimatic significance of changes in clay mineralogy across the Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary in England and France.Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 81, 173-187. [37] Hesselbo S.P., Deconinck J.F., Huggett J.M., Morgans-Bell H.S., 2009. Late Jurassic palaeoclimatic change from clay mineralogy and gamma-ray spectrometry of the Kimmeridge Clay, Dorset, UK.Journal of the Geological Society, 166, 1123-1133. [38] Hopson P., Wilkinson I., Woods M., 2008. A stratigraphical framework for the Lower Cretaceous of England. British Geological Survey, p. 77. [39] Jeans C.V.,2006. Clay mineralogy of the Cretaceous strata of the British Isles.Clay Minerals, 41, 47-150. [40] Jeans C.V., Mitchell J.G., Fisher M.J., Wray D.S., Hall I.R., 2001. Age, origin and climatic signal of English Mesozoic clays based on K/Ar signatures.Clay Minerals, 36, 515-539. [41] Karner G.D., Lake S.D., Dewey J.F., 1987. The thermal and mechanical development of the Wessex Basin, southern England.Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 28, 517-536. [42] Knappett C., Pirrie D., Power M., Nikolakopoulou I., Hilditch J., Rollinson G., 2011. Mineralogical analysis and provenancing of ancient ceramics using automated SEM-EDS analysis (QEMSCAN®): A pilot study on LB I pottery from Akrotiri, Thera.Journal of Archaeological Science, 38, 219-232. [43] Lake R.D., Shephard-Thorn E.R., 1987. Geology of the country around Hastings and Dungeness. HM Stationery Office, London. [44] Lake S.D., Karner G.D., 1987. The structure and evolution of the Wessex Basin, southern England: An example of inversion tectonics.Tectonophysics, 137, 347-378. [45] Lanson B., Beaufort D., Berger G., Baradat J., Lacharpagne J., 1996. Late-stage diagenesis of clay minerals in porous rocks: Lower Permian Rotliegendes reservoir off-shore of the Netherlands.Journal of Sedimentary Research, 66, 501-518. [46] Lanson B., Beaufort D., Berger G., Bauer A., Cassagnabere A., Meunier A., 2002. Authigenic kaolin and illitic minerals during burial diagenesis of sandstones: A review.Clay minerals, 37, 1-22. [47] Maciel I.B., Dettori A., Balsamo F., Bezerra F.H., Vieira M.M., Nogueira F.C., Salvioli-Mariani E., Sousa J.A.B., 2018. Structural control on clay mineral authigenesis in faulted arkosic sandstone of the Rio do Peixe Basin, Brazil.Minerals, 8, 408. [48] Macquaker J., Gawthorpe R., 1993. Mudstone lithofacies in the Kimmeridge Clay Formation, Wessex Basin, southern England; implications for the origin and controls of the distribution of mudstones.Journal of Sedimentary Research, 63, 1129-1143. [49] Nie J., Peng W., 2014. Automated SEM-EDS heavy mineral analysis reveals no provenance shift between glacial loess and interglacial paleosol on the Chinese Loess Plateau.Aeolian Research, 13, 71-75. [50] Proust J., Deconinck J., Geyssant J., Herbin J., Vidier J., 1995. Sequence analytical approach to the Upper Kimmeridgian-Lower Tithonian storm-dominated ramp deposits of the Boulonnais (Northern France). A landward time-equivalent to offshore marine source rocks.Geologische Rundschau, 84, 255-271. [51] Radley J.D., Barker M.J., Harding I.C., 1998. Palaeoenvironment and taphonomy of dinosaur tracks in the Vectis Formation (Lower Cretaceous) of the Wessex Sub-basin, southern England.Cretaceous Research, 19, 471-487. [52] Reeves J.W.,1948. Surface problems in the search for oil in Sussex. Proceedings of the Geologists' Association, 59, 234-IN238. [53] Rego E.S., Jovane L., Hein J.R., Sant'Anna L.G., Giorgioni M., Rodelli D., Özcan E., 2018. Mineralogical evidence for warm and dry climatic conditions in the Neo-Tethys (eastern Turkey) during the middle Eocene.Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 501, 45-57. [54] Ruffell A., Ross A., Taylor K., 2006. Early Cretaceous Environments of the Weald. Geologists’ Association, United Kingdom. [55] Sladen C.P.,1983. Trends in Early Cretaceous clay mineralogy in NW Europe.Zitteliana, 10, 57. [56] Sladen C.P.,1987. Aspects of the clay mineralogy of the Wealden and upper Purbeck rocks. In: Lake, R.D., Shephard-Thorn, E.R., (Eds.). Geology of the Country around Hastings and Dungeness. HM Stationery Office, London, pp. 71-72. [57] Sladen C.P., Batten D.J., 1984. Source-area environments of Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous sediments in Southeast England.Proceedings of the Geologists' Association, 95, 149-163. [58] Smith A., Briden J., Drewry G., 1973. Phanerozoic World Maps, in Organisms and Continents through Time. Special Papers in Palaeontology 12. Palaeontological Association London. [59] Song Y., Wang Q., An Z., Qiang X., Dong J., Chang H., Zhang M., Guo X., 2018. Mid-Miocene climatic optimum: Clay mineral evidence from the red clay succession, Longzhong Basin, Northern China.Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 512, 46-55. [60] Stewart D.J.,1981. A field guide to the Wealden Group of the Hastings area and the Isle of Wight. In: Elliott, T., (Ed.). Field Guides to Modern and Ancient Fluvial Systems in Britain and Spain. International Fluvial Conference, University of Keele, pp. 3.1-3.32. [61] Stoneley R.,1982. The structural development of the Wessex Basin.Journal of the Geological Society, 139, 543-554. [62] Tan P., Oberhardt N., Dypvik H., Riber L., Ferrell R.E., 2017. Weathering profiles and clay mineralogical developments, Bornholm, Denmark.Marine and Petroleum Geology, 80, 32-48. [63] Tank R.W.,1964. X-ray examination of some clays from the London Platform.Geological Magazine, 101, 535-540. [64] Taylor K., Macquaker J.H., 2014. Diagenetic alterations in a silt-and clay-rich mudstone succession: An example from the Upper Cretaceous Mancos Shale of Utah, USA.Clay Minerals, 49, 213-227. [65] Taylor K.G.,1992. Non-marine oolitic ironstones in the Lower Cretaceous Wealden sediments of Southeast England.Geological Magazine, 129, 349-358. [66] Taylor K.G.,1996. Pedogenic clay mineral transformation in the Weald Basin: Implications for Early Cretaceous hinterland climate reconstructions.Cretaceous Research, 17, 103-108. [67] Thiry M.,2000. Palaeoclimatic interpretation of clay minerals in marine deposits: An outlook from the continental origin.Earth-Science Reviews, 49, 201-221. [68] Tucker M.E.,2001. Sedimentary Petrology: An Introduction to the Origin of Sedimentary Rocks. Blackwell Science, Oxford. [69] Weaver C.E.,1956. A discussion on the origin of clay minerals in sedimentary rocks.Clays and Clay Minerals, 5, 159-173. [70] Worden R., Burley S., 2003. Sandstone diagenesis: The evolution of sand to stone. In: Burley, S., Worden, R.H., (Eds.). Sandstone Diagenesis: Recent and Ancient. International Association of Sedimentologists Special Publications, pp. 1-44. [71] Worden R., Griffiths J., Wooldridge L., Utley J., Lawan A.Y., Muhammed D., Simon N., Armitage P., 2020. Chlorite in sandstones.Earth-Science Reviews, 204, 103105. [72] Worden R., Morad S., 2000. Quartz cementation in oil field sandstones: A review of the key controversies. In: Worden, R.H., Morad, S., (Eds.). Quartz Cementation in Sandstones. International Association of Sedimentologists Special Publication, pp. 1-20. [73] Worden R.H., Morad S., 2003. Clay minerals in sandstones: Controls on formation, distribution and evolution. In: Worden, R.H., Morad, S., (Eds.). Clay Minerals in Sandstones. International Association of Sedimentologists Special Publication, pp. 1-42. [74] Zhang X., Pease V., Omma J., Benedictus A., 2015. Provenance of Late Carboniferous to Jurassic sandstones for southern Taimyr, Arctic Russia: A comparison of heavy mineral analysis by optical and QEMSCAN® methods.Sedimentary Geology, 329, 166-176. [75] Zuo F., Heimhofer U., Huck S., Adatte T., Erbacher J., Bodin S., 2019. Climatic fluctuations and seasonality during the Kimmeridgian (Late Jurassic): Stable isotope and clay mineralogical data from the Lower Saxony Basin, Northern Germany.Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 517, 1-15.