Hydraulic and sedimentary responses of turbidity current to structurally-controlled topography
GE Zhiyuan1,2, XU Hongxiang1,2
1 College of Geosciences,China University of Petroleum(Beijing),Beijing 102249,China; 2 National Key Laboratory of Petroleum Resources and Engineering,China University of Petroleum(Beijing),Beijing 102249,China
Abstract As one of the main sedimentary processes on Earth,turbidity current is responsible for transporting significant amounts of terrigenous sediments,such as mud,sand and organic carbon,into deep water environments. Traditional depositional models of turbidite systems mainly focus on deep-water areas with planar topography. However,slope areas and various tectonic basins hosting turbidite sedimentation often have complex topographic characteristics. Recent studies of turbidite systems based on outcrop observations,numerical and physical simulations as well as in-situ monitoring,have revealed the hydraulic responses of turbidity current to complex topography,namely flow reflection,deflection and hydraulic jump. However,due to the difficulties of acquiring hydraulic parameters of turbidity current,and the topographic complexities of various structures,a gap still remains between our understanding of the hydraulic response of turbidity current to local topographies and large-scale sediment distribution patterns in structurally-controlled basins. Thus,the studies of turbidity current responses to various topographic settings are still largely model driven,with both similarities and variations present among different models. Taking folding topography as an example,at topographic highs,the gravitational potential energy of turbidity current tends to increase,and the turbidity current reflects and accumulates sediments in the upstream direction;while at a topographic low,gravitational potential energy of turbidity current tends to decrease and the turbidity current experiences hydraulic jumps and drop sediments in the downstream direction. In other cases,due to topographic variations,the sedimentary characteristics of turbidites vary in different tectonic settings. In summary,although significant progress has been made on understanding turbidity current responses to structurally-controlled topography,most studies are still qualitative and semi-quantitative in nature with static or oversimplified topography. Future studies,especially case anatomy combined with quantitative methods,such as in-situ monitoring and simulation,are imperative to enhance our understanding of the topic.
Fund:National Natural Science Foundation of China(No.42102119)
About author: GE Zhiyuan,born in 1986,is a professor and doctoral supervisor at the College of Geosciences,China University of Petroleum(Beijing). He is mainly engaged in researches and teaching of deep-water sedimentology and salt tectonic. E-mail: gezhiyuan@cup.edu.cn.
Cite this article:
GE Zhiyuan,XU Hongxiang. Hydraulic and sedimentary responses of turbidity current to structurally-controlled topography[J]. JOPC, 2023, 25(5): 1090-1117.
GE Zhiyuan,XU Hongxiang. Hydraulic and sedimentary responses of turbidity current to structurally-controlled topography[J]. JOPC, 2023, 25(5): 1090-1117.
[1] 操应长,杨田,王艳忠,张少敏,王思佳,张青青,王心怿. 2017a. 深水碎屑流与浊流混合事件层类型及成因机制. 地学前缘, 24(3): 234-248. [Cao Y C,Yang T,Wang Y Z,Zhang S M,Wang S J,Zhang Q Q,Wang X Y.2017a. Types and genesis of deep-water hybrid event beds comprising debris flow and turbidity current. Earth Science Frontiers, 24(3): 234-248] [2] 操应长,杨田,王艳忠,李文强. 2017b. 超临界沉积物重力流形成演化及特征. 石油学报, 38(6): 607-621. [Cao Y C,Yang T,Wang Y Z,Li W Q.2017b. Formation,evolution and sedimentary characteristics of supercritical sediment gravity-flow. Acta Petrolei Sinica, 38(6): 607-621] [3] 陈亮,赵千慧,王英民,孙红军,万琼华,唐武,赵鹏. 2017. 盐构造与深水水道的交互作用: 以下刚果盆地为例. 沉积学报, 35(6): 1197-1204. [Chen L,Zhao Q H,Wang Y M,Sun H J,Wan Q H,Tang W,Zhao P.2017. Interactions between submarine channels and salt structures: examples from the lower Congo Basin. Acta Sedimentologica Sinica, 35(6): 1197-1204] [4] 龚承林,Ronald J.Steel,彭旸,王英民,李东伟. 2022. 深海碎屑岩层序地层学50年(1970—2020)重要进展. 沉积学报, 40(2): 292-318. [Gong C L,Steel R,Peng Y,Wang Y M,Li D W.2022. Major advances in deep-marine siliciclastic sequence stratigraphy,1970 to 2020. Acta Sedimentologica Sinica, 40(2): 292-318] [5] 郭彦英,黄河清. 2013. 海底浊流在坡道转换处的流动及沉积的数值模拟. 沉积学报, 31(6): 994-1000. [Guo Y Y,Huang H Q.2013. Numerical simulation of the flow and deposition of turbidity currents with different slope changes. Acta Sedimentologica Sinica, 31(6): 994-1000] [6] 侯明才,杨田,田景春,蔡来星,李晓芳,何青,余文强. 2022. 吉尔伯特型三角洲沉积过程与沉积模式. 沉积学报.
https://doi.org/10.14027/j.issn.1000-0550.2022.084. [Hou M C,Yang T,Tian J C,Cai L X,Li X F,He Q,Yu W Q.2022. Formation Processes and Depositional Model of Gilbert-type Deltas. https://doi.org/10.14027/j.issn.1000-0550.2022.084.] [7] 李华,何明薇,邱春光,王英民,何幼斌,徐艳霞,何瑞武. 2023. 深水等深流与重力流交互作用沉积(2000—2022年)研究进展. 沉积学报, 41(1): 18-36. [Li H,He M W,Qiu C G,Wang Y M,He Y B,Xu Y X,He R W.2023. Research processes on deep-water interaction between contour current and gravity flow deposits,2000 to 2022. Acta Sedimentologica Sinica, 41(1): 18-36] [8] 李相博,卫平生,刘化清,王菁. 2013. 浅谈沉积物重力流分类与深水沉积模式. 地质论评, 59(4): 607-614. [Li X B,Wei P S,Liu H Q,Wang J.2013. Discussion on the classification of sediment gravity flow and the deep-water sedimentary model. Geological Review, 59(4): 607-614] [9] 庞雄,陈长民,朱明,何敏,柳保军,申俊,连世勇. 2007. 深水沉积研究前缘问题. 地质论评, 53(1): 36-43. [Pang X,Chen W M,Zhu M,He M,Liu B J,Shen J,Lian S Y.2013. Frontier of the deep-water deposition study. Geological Review, 53(1): 36-43] [10] 田冬梅,姜涛. 2023. 深水水道沉积动力学发展现状与展望. 沉积学报. https://doi.org/10.14027/j.issn.1000-0550.2022.158. [Tian D M,Jiang T.2022. Research advances of depositional dynamics in submarine channels. https://doi.org/10.14027/j.issn.1000-0550.2022.158] [11] 汪品先. 2009. 深海沉积与地球系统. 海洋地质与第四纪地质, 29(4): 1-11. [Wang P X.2009. Deep Sea sediments and earth system. Marine Geology & Quaternary Geology, 29(4): 1-11] [12] 王大伟,白宏新,吴时国. 2018. 浊流及其相关的深水底形研究进展. 地球科学进展, 33(1): 52-65. [Wang D W,Bai H X,Wu S G.2018. The research progress of turbidity currents and related deep-water bedforms. Advances in Earth Science, 33(1): 52-65] [13] 王大伟,孙悦,司少文,吴时国. 2020. 海底周期阶坎研究进展与挑战. 地球科学进展, 35(9): 890-901. [Wang D W,Sun Y,Si S W,Wu S G.2020. Research progress and challenges of submarine cyclic steps. Advances in Earth Science, 35(9): 890-901] [14] 鲜本忠,安思奇,施文华. 2014. 水下碎屑流沉积: 深水沉积研究热点与进展. 地质论评, 60(1): 39-51. [Xian B Z,An S Q,Shi W H.2014. Subaqueous debris flow: hotspots and advances of deep-water sedimentation. Geological Review, 60(1): 39-51] [15] 杨宇平. 2020. 基于FLOW3D的浊流数值模拟研究. 哈尔滨工业大学硕士学位论文. [Yang Y P.2020. Numerical simulation of turbidity currents based on FLOW3D. Masteral dissertation of Harbin Institute of Technology] [16] 赵晓明,刘丽,谭程鹏,范廷恩,胡光义,张迎春,张文彪,宋来明. 2018. 海底水道体系沉积构型样式及控制因素: 以尼日尔三角洲盆地陆坡区为例. 古地理学报, 20(5): 825-840. [Zhao X M,Liu L,Tan C P,Fan T E,Hu G Y,Zhang Y C,Zhang W B,Song L M.2018. Styles of submarine-channel architecture and its controlling factors: a case study from the Niger Delta Basin slope. Journal of Palaeogeography(Chinese Edition), 20(5): 825-840] [17] 钟广法. 2023. 超临界浊流之地貌动力学和沉积特征. 沉积学报, 41(1): 52-72. [Zhong G F.2023. Morphodynamics of supercritical turbidity currents and sedimentary characteristics of related deposits. Acta Sedimentologica Sinica, 41(1): 52-72] [18] Abhari M N,Iranshahi M,Ghodsian M,Firoozabadi B.2018. Experimental study of obstacle effect on sediment transport of turbidity currents. Journal of Hydraulic Research, 56(5): 618-629. [19] Alexander J,Morris S.1994. Observations on experimental,nonchannelized,high-concentration turbidity currents and variations in deposits around obstacles. Journal of Sedimentary Research,64(4a): 899-909. [20] Allen J R L.2012. Principles of Physical Sedimentology. Dordrecht: Springer,223-241. [21] Altinakar M S,Graf W H,Hopfinger E J.1996. Flow structure in turbidity currents. Journal of Hydraulic Research, 34: 713-718. [22] Amy L A,McCaffrey W D,Kneller B C.2004. The influence of a lateral basin-slope on the depositional patterns of natural and experimental turbidity currents. Geological Society,London,Special Publications, 221(1): 311-330. [23] Athmer W,Luthi S M.2011. The effect of relay ramps on sediment routes and deposition: a review. Sedimentary Geology, 242(1-4): 1-17. [24] Athmer W,Groenenberg R M,Luthi S M,Donselaar M E,Sokoutis D,Willingshofer E.2010. Relay ramps as pathways for turbidity currents: a study combining analogue sandbox experiments and numerical flow simulations. Sedimentology, 57(3): 806-823. [25] Azpiroz-Zabala M,Cartigny M J B,Talling P J,Parsons D R,Sumner E J,Clare M A,Simmons S M,Cooper C,Pope E L.2017. Newly recognized turbidity current structure can explain prolonged flushing of submarine canyons. Science advances, 3(10): e1700200. [26] Badalini G,Kneller B C,Winker C D.2000. Architecture and processes in the late Pleistocene brazos-trinity turbidite system,gulf of Mexico continental slope. Deep-Water Reservoirs of the World: 20th Annual: Society of Economic Paleontologists: 16-34. [27] Baines P G.1979. Observations of stratified flow past three-dimensional barriers. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans,84(C12): 7834-7838. [28] Bastianon E,Viparelli E,Cantelli A,Imran J.2021.2D numerical simulation of the filling process of submarine minibasins: study of deposit architecture. Journal of Sedimentary Research, 91(4): 399-414. [29] Beaubouef R T,Friedmann S J.2000. High resolution seismic/sequence stratigraphic framework for the evolution of Pleistocene intra slope basins,western Gulf of Mexico;depositional models and reservoir analogs. Deep-Water Reservoirs of the World: 20th Annual: Society of Economic Paleontologists: 40-60. [30] Beaubouef R T,Abreu V,Van Wagoner J C.2003. Basin 4 of the Brazos-Trinity slope system,western Gulf of Mexico;the terminal portion of a late Pleistocene lowstand systems tract. Deep-Water Reservoirs of the World: 23rd Annual: Society of Economic Paleontologists: 45-66. [31] Beaubouef R T,Abreu V.2006. Basin 4 of the Brazos-Trinity slope system;anatomy of the terminal portion of an intra-slope lowstand systems tract: Transactions—Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies, 56: 39-49. [32] Booth J R,DuVernay A E Ⅲ,Pfeiffer D S,Styzen M J.2000. Sequence stratigraphic framework,depositional models,and stacking patterns of ponded and slope fan systems in the Auger Basin;central Gulf of Mexico slope. Deep-Water Reservoirs of the World: 20th Annual: Society of Economic Paleontologists: 82-103. [33] Booth J R,Dean M C,DuVernay A E,Styzen M J.2003. Paleo-bathymetric controls on the stratigraphic architecture and reservoir development of confined fans in the Auger Basin: Central Gulf of Mexico slope. Marine and Petroleum Geology, 20: 563-586. [34] Bretis B,Bartl N,Grasemann B.2011. Lateral fold growth and linkage in the Zagros fold and thrust belt(Kurdistan,NE Iraq). Basin Research, 23(6): 615-630. [35] Buckee C,Kneller B C,Peakall J.2009. Turbulence structure in steady, solute-driven gravity currents. Particulate Gravity Currents. Oxford,UK: Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 173-187. [36] Callot J P,Salel J F,Letouzey J,Daniel J M,Ringenbach J C.2016. Three-dimensional evolution of salt-controlled minibasins: Interactions,folding and megaflap development. AAPG Bulletin, 100(9): 1419-1442. [37] Cartigny M J B,Ventra D,Postma G,van Den Berg J H.2014. Morphodynamics and sedimentary structures of bedforms under supercritical-flow conditions: new insights from flume experiments. Sedimentology, 61(3): 712-748. [38] Cartwright J A,Trudgill B D,Mansfield C S.1995. Fault growth by segment linkage: an explanation for scatter in maximum displacement and trace length data from the Canyonlands Grabens of SE Utah. Journal of Structural Geology, 17(9): 1319-1326. [39] Castro I P,Snyder W H.1993. Experiments on wave breaking in stratified flow over obstacles. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 255: 195-211. [40] Clark I R,Cartwright J A.2009. Interactions between submarine channel systems and deformation in deepwater fold belts: examples from the Levant Basin,eastern Mediterranean Sea. Marine and Petroleum Geology, 26: 1465-1482. [41] Clark I R,Cartwright J A.2011. Key controls on submarine channel development in structurally active settings. Marine and Petroleum Geology, 28: 1333-1349. [42] Clark I R,Cartwright J A.2012. Interactions between coeval sedimentation and deformation from the Niger delta deepwater fold belt. Application of the Principles of seismic geomorphology to continental-slope and base-of-slope systems: case studies from seafloor and near-seafloor analogues. SEPM Special Publication,243-267. [43] Clayton C J.1993. Deflection versus reflection of sediment gravity flows in the late Llandovery Rhuddnant Grits turbidite system,Welsh Basin. Journal of the Geological Society, 150(5): 819-822. [44] Collignon M,Kaus B J P,May D A,Fernandez N.2014. Influences of surface processes on fold growth during 3-D detachment folding. Geochemistry,Geophysics,Geosystems, 15(8): 3281-3303. [45] Collignon M,Fernandez N,Kaus B J P.2015. Influence of surface processes and initial topography on lateral fold growth and fold linkage mode. Tectonics, 34(8): 1622-1645. [46] Cowie P A.1998. A healing-reloading feedback control on the growth rate of seismogenic faults. Journal of Structural Geology, 20(8): 1075-1087. [47] Cullen T M,Collier R E L,Gawthorpe R L,Hodgson D M,Barrett B J.2020. Axial and transverse deep-water sediment supply to syn-rift fault terraces: insights from the West Xylokastro Fault Block,Gulf of Corinth,Greece. Basin Research, 32(5): 1105-1139. [48] Cumberpatch Z A,Finch E,Kane I A,Pichel L M,Jackson C A L,Kilhams B A,Hodgson D M,Huuse M.2021a. Halokinetic modulation of sedimentary thickness and architecture: a numerical modelling approach. Basin Research, 33(5): 2572-2604. [49] Cumberpatch Z A,Finch E,Kane I A.2021b. External signal preservation in halokinetic stratigraphy: a discrete element modeling approach. Geology, 49(6): 687-692. [50] Doughty-Jones G,Mayall M,Lonergan L.2017. Stratigraphy,facies,and evolution of deep-water lobe complexes within a salt-controlled intraslope minibasin. AAPG Bulletin, 101(11): 1879-1904. [51] Doughty-Jones G,Lonergan L,Mayall M,Dee S.2019. The role of structural growth in controlling the facies and distribution of mass transport deposits in a deep-water salt minibasin. Marine and Petroleum Geology, 104: 106-124. [52] Edwards D A,Leeder M R,Best J L,Pantin H M.1994. On experimental reflected density currents and the interpretation of certain turbidites. Sedimentology, 41(3): 437-461. [53] Farizan A,Yaghoubi S,Firoozabadi B,Afshin H.2019. Effect of an obstacle on the depositional behaviour of turbidity currents. Journal of Hydraulic Research, 57(1): 75-89. [54] Fernandez N,Kaus B J P.2014. Fold interaction and wavelength selection in 3D models of multilayer detachment folding. Tectonophysics, 632: 199-217. [55] Fossen H,Rotevatn A.2016. Fault linkage and relay structures in extensional settings: a review. Earth-Science Reviews, 154: 14-28. [56] Gamboa D,Alves T M.2015. Spatial and dimensional relationships of submarine slope architectural elements: a seismic-scale analysis from the Espírito Santo Basin(SE Brazil). Marine and Petroleum Geology, 64: 43-57. [57] Garcia M,Parker G.1989. Experiments on hydraulic jumps in turbidity currents near a canyon-fan transition. Science, 245(4916): 393-396. [58] Gawthorpe R L,Hurst J M.1993. Transfer zones in extensional basins: their structural style and influence on drainage development and stratigraphy. Journal of the Geological Society, 150(6): 1137-1152. [59] Gawthorpe R L,Leeder M R.2000. Tectono-sedimentary evolution of active extensional basins. Basin Research, 12: 195-218. [60] Ge Z Y,Nemec W,Gawthorpe R L,Hansen E W M.2017. Response of unconfined turbidity current to normal-fault topography. Sedimentology, 64: 932-959. [61] Ge Z Y,Nemec W,Gawthorpe R L,Rotevatn A,Hansen E W M.2018. Response of unconfined turbidity current to relay-ramp topography: insights from process-based numerical modelling. Basin Research, 30: 321-343. [62] Giles K,Rowan M.2012. Concepts in halokinetic-sequence Deformation and stratigraphy. In: Alsop G I,Archer S G,Hartley A J,Grant N T,Hodgkinson R(eds). Salt Tectonics,Sediments and Prospectivity. Geological Society,London,Special Publications, 363: 7-31. [63] Goodarzi D,Sookhak Lari K,Khavasi E,Abolfathi S.2020. Large eddy simulation of turbidity currents in a narrow channel with different obstacle configurations. Scientific Reports, 10(1): 12814. [64] Grasemann B,Schmalholz S M.2012. Lateral fold growth and fold linkage. Geology, 40(11): 1039-1042. [65] Gray T E,Alexander J,Leeder M R.2005. Quantifying velocity and turbulence structure in depositing sustained turbidity currents across breaks in slope. Sedimentology, 52(3): 467-488. [66] Grecula M,Flint S,Potts G,Wickens D,Johnson S.2003. Partial ponding of turbidite systems in a basin with subtle growth-fold topography: Laingsburg-Karoo,South Africa. Journal of Sedimentary Research, 73(4): 603-620. [67] Gupta A,Scholz C H.2000. A model of normal fault interaction based on observations and theory. Journal of Structural Geology, 22(7): 865-879. [68] Haughton P D W.1994. Deposits of deflected and ponded turbidity currents,sorbas basin,southeast Spain. Journal of Sedimentary Research,64(2a): 233-246. [69] Heiniö P,Davies R J.2006. Degradation of compressional fold belts: deep-water Niger delta. AAPG Bulletin, 90: 753-770. [70] Hesse S,Back S,Franke D.2010. The structural evolution of folds in a deepwater fold and thrust belt-a case study from the Sabah continental margin offshore NW Borneo,SE Asia. Marine and Petroleum Geology, 27: 442-454. [71] Higgins S,Davies R J,Clarke B.2007. Antithetic fault linkages in a deep water fold and thrust belt. Journal of Structural Geology, 29(12): 1900-1914. [72] Hiscott R N,Pickering K T.1984. Reflected turbidity currents on an Ordovician Basin floor,Canadian Appalachians. Nature, 311(5982): 143-145. [73] Hodgson D M,Peakall J,Maier K L.2022. Submarine channel mouth settings: processes,geomorphology,and deposits. Frontiers in Earth Science, 10: 74. [74] Howlett D M,Ge Z Y,Nemec W,Gawthorpe R L,Rotevatn A,Jackson C A L.2019. Response of unconfined turbidity current to deep-water fold and thrust belt topography: orthogonal incidence on solitary and segmented folds. Sedimentology, 66: 2425-2454. [75] Howlett D M,Gawthorpe R L,Ge Z Y,Rotevatn A,Jackson C A L.2021. Turbidites,topography and tectonics: evolution of submarine channel-lobe systems in the salt-influenced Kwanza Basin,offshore Angola. Basin Research, 33: 1076-1110. [76] Hudec M R,Jackson M P,Schultz-Ela D D.2009. The paradox of minibasin subsidence into salt: clues to the evolution of crustal basins. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 121(1-2): 201-221. [77] Hughes Clarke J E.2016. First wide-angle view of channelized turbidity currents links migrating cyclic steps to flow characteristics. Nature Communications, 7: 11896. [78] Hunt J C R,Snyder W H.1980. Experiments on stably and neutrally stratified flow over a model three-dimensional hill. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 96: 671-704. [79] Imber J,Tuckwell G W,Childs C,Walsh J J,Manzocchi T,Heath A E,Bonson C G,Strand J.2004. Three-dimensional distinct element modelling of relay growth and breaching along normal faults. Journal of Structural Geology, 26(10): 1897-1911. [80] Jackson M P A, Hudec M R. 2017. Salt Tectonics: Principles and Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,155. [81] Johnson D.1939. The origin of submarine canyons: a critical review of hypotheses. The Geographical Journal, 96: 71. [82] Jolly B A,Lonergan L,Whittaker A C.2016. Growth history of fault-related folds and interaction with seabed channels in the toe-thrust region of the deep-water Niger delta. Marine and Petroleum Geology, 70: 58-76. [83] Jolly B A,Whittaker A C,Lonergan L.2017. Quantifying the geomorphic response of modern submarine channels to actively growing folds and thrusts,deep-water Niger Delta. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 129(9-10): 1123-1139. [84] Khan S M,Imran J.2008. Numerical investigation of turbidity currents flowing through minibasins on the continental slope. Journal of Sedimentary Research, 78(4): 245-257. [85] Kneller B C.1995. Beyond the turbidite paradigm: physical models for deposition of turbidites and their implications for reservoir prediction. Geological Society,London,Special Publications, 94: 31-49. [86] Kneller B C,McCaffrey B.1993. Modelling the effects of salt-induced topography on deposition from turbidity currents. Salt,Sediment and Hydrocarbons: Gulf Coast Section SEPM, 1: 137-145. [87] Kneller B C,Branney M J.1995. Sustained high-density turbidity currents and the deposition of thick massive sands. Sedimentology, 42(4): 607-616. [88] Kneller B C,McCaffrey W D.1999. Depositional effects of flow nonuniformity and stratification within turbidity currents approaching a bounding slope;deflection,reflection,and facies variation. Journal of Sedimentary Research, 69(5): 980-991. [89] Kneller B C,Buckee C.2000. The structure and fluid mechanics of turbidity currents: a review of some recent studies and their geological implications. Sedimentology, 47: 62-94. [90] Kneller B C,Edwards D,McCaffrey W D,Moore R.1991. Oblique reflection of turbidity currents. Geology, 19(3): 250-252. [91] Kneller B C,Bennett S J,McCaffrey W D.1999. Velocity structure,turbulence and fluid stresses in experimental gravity currents. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, 104: 5381-5391. [92] Komar P D.1971. Hydraulic jumps in turbidity currents. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 82(6): 1477-1488. [93] Kostic S,Parker G.2006. The response of turbidity currents to a canyon-fan transition: internal hydraulic jumps and depositional signatures. Journal of Hydraulic Research, 44: 631-653. [94] Kostic S,Parker G.2007. Conditions under which a supercritical turbidity current traverses an abrupt transition to vanishing bed slope without a hydraulic jump. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 586: 119-145. [95] Kuenen P H.1937. Experiments in connection with Daly’s hypothesis on the formation of submarine canyons. Leidsche Geologische Mededeelingen, 7: 327-351. [96] Kuenen P H,Migliorini C I.1950. Turbidity currents as a cause of graded bedding. The Journal of Geology, 58(2): 91-127. [97] Lamb M P,Hickson T,Marr J G,Sheets B,Paola C,Parker G.2004. Surging versus continuous turbidity currents: flow dynamics and deposits in an experimental intraslope minibasin. Journal of Sedimentary Research, 74(1): 148-155. [98] Lamb M P,Toniolo H,Parker G.2006. Trapping of sustained turbidity currents by intraslope minibasins. Sedimentology, 53(1): 147-160. [99] Lane-Serff G F,Beal L M,Hadfield T D.1995. Gravity current flow over obstacles. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 292: 39-53. [100] Lawrence G A.1993. The hydraulics of steady two-layer flow over a fixed obstacle. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 254: 605-633. [101] Leeder M R,Gawthorpe R L.1987. Sedimentary models for extensional tilt-block/half-graben basins. Geological Society,London,Special Publications, 28: 139-152. [102] Long R R.1955. Some aspects of the flow of stratified fluids: Ⅲ. Continuous density gradients. Tellus, 7(3): 341-357. [103] Lowe D R.1982. Sediment gravity flows: II depositional models with special reference to the deposits of high-density turbidity currents. SEPM Journal of Sedimentary Research, 52: 279-297. [104] Madof A S,Christie-Blick N,Anders M H.2009. Stratigraphic controls on a salt-withdrawal intraslope minibasin,north-central Green Canyon,Gulf of Mexico: implications for misinterpreting sea level change. AAPG Bulletin, 93: 535-561. [105] Madof A S,Christie-Blick N,Anders M H,Febo L A.2017. Unreciprocated sedimentation along a mud-dominated continental margin,Gulf of Mexico,U.S.A.: implications for sequence stratigraphy in muddy settings devoid of depositional sequences. Marine and Petroleum Geology, 80: 492-516. [106] Maharaj V T.2012. The effects of confining minibasin topography on turbidity current dynamics and deposit architecture. Doctoral dissertation of The University of Texas at Austin: 1-479. [107] Marjanac T.1990. Reflected sediment gravity flows and their deposits in flysch of Middle Dalmatia,Yugoslavia. Sedimentology, 37(5): 921-929. [108] Maselli V,Micallef A,Normandeau A,Oppo D,Iacopini D,Green A,Ge Z Y.2021. Active faulting controls bedform development on a deep-water fan. Geology, 49(12): 1495-1500. [109] Mayall M,Lonergan L,Bowman A,James S,Mills K,Primmer T,Pope D,Rogers L,Skeene R.2010. The response of turbidite slope channels to growth-induced seabed topography. AAPG Bulletin, 94: 1011-1030. [110] Meiburg E,Kneller B C.2010. Turbidity currents and their deposits. Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics, 42: 135-156. [111] Mianaekere V,Adam J.2020. ‘Halo-kinematic’sequence stratigraphic analysis adjacent to salt diapirs in the deepwater contractional Province,Liguro-Provençal Basin,Western Mediterranean Sea. Marine and Petroleum Geology, 115: 104258. [112] Middleton G V.1993. Sediment deposition from turbidity currents. Annual review of earth and planetary sciences, 21: 89-114. [113] Mignot E,Riviere N.2010. Bow-wave-like hydraulic jump and horseshoe vortex around an obstacle in a supercritical open channel flow. Physics of Fluids, 22(11): 117105. [114] Miles J W,Huppert H E.1968. Lee waves in a stratified flow. Part 2. Semi-circular obstacle. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 33(4): 803-814. [115] Mitchell W H,Whittaker A C,Mayall M,Lonergan L,Pizzi M.2021a. Quantifying the relationship between structural deformation and the morphology of submarine channels on the Niger Delta continental slope. Basin Research, 33(1): 186-209. [116] Mitchell W H,Whittaker A C,Mayall M,Lonergan L.2021b. New models for submarine channel deposits on structurally complex slopes: examples from the Niger delta system. Marine and Petroleum Geology, 129: 105040. [117] Mitchell W H,Whittaker A C,Mayall M,Lonergan L,Pizzi M.2022. Quantifying structural controls on submarine channel architecture and kinematics. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 134(3-4): 928-940. [118] Morley C K.1995. Developments in the structural geology of rifts over the last decade and their impact on hydrocarbon exploration. Geological Society,London,Special Publications, 80(1): 1-32. [119] Morley C K.2007. Interaction between critical wedge geometry and sediment supply in a deep-water fold belt. Geology, 35(2): 139-142. [120] Morley C K,Leong L C.2008. Evolution of deep-water synkinematic sedimentation in a piggyback basin,determined from three-dimensional seismic reflection data. Geosphere, 4(6): 939-962. [121] Morley C K.2009. Growth of folds in a deep-water setting. Geosphere, 5(2): 59-89. [122] Morley C K,King R,Hillis R,Tingay M,Backe G.2011. Deepwater fold and thrust belt classification,tectonics,structure and hydrocarbon prospectivity: a review. Earth-Science Reviews, 104: 41-91. [123] Muck M T,Underwood M B.1990. Upslope flow of turbidity currents: a comparison among field observations,theory,and laboratory models. Geology, 18(1): 54-57. [124] Mulder T,Alexander J.2001. The physical character of subaqueous sedimentary density flows and their deposits. Sedimentology, 48: 269-299. [125] Mutti E,Ricci L F.1978. Turbidites of the northern Apennines: introduction to facies analysis. International Geology Review, 20(2): 125-166. [126] Mutti E,Normark W R.1987. Comparing examples of modern and ancient turbidite systems: problems and concepts. In: Leggett J K,Zuffa G G(eds). Marine Clastic Sedimentology. Dordrecht: Springer, 1-38. [127] Mutti E,Bernoulli D,Lucchi F R,Tinterri R.2009. Turbidites and turbidity currents from Alpine‘flysch’to the exploration of continental margins. Sedimentology, 56(1): 267-318. [128] Nasr-Azadani M M,Meiburg E.2014a. Turbidity currents interacting with three-dimensional seafloor topography. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 745: 409-443. [129] Nasr-Azadani M M,Meiburg E.2014b. Influence of seafloor topography on the depositional behavior of bi-disperse turbidity currents: a three-dimensional,depth-resolved numerical investigation. Environmental Fluid Mechanics, 14(2): 319-342. [130] Nicol A,Walsh J,Berryman K,Nodder S.2005. Growth of a normal fault by the accumulation of slip over millions of years. Journal of Structural Geology, 27(2): 327-342. [131] Normark W R.1970. Growth patterns of deep-sea fans. AAPG Bulletin, 54(11): 2170-2195. [132] Oluboyo A P,Gawthorpe R L,Bakke K,Hadler-Jacobsen F.2014. Salt tectonic controls on deep-water turbidite depositional systems: Miocene,southwestern Lower Congo Basin,offshore Angola. Basin Research, 26: 597-620. [133] Pantin H M,Leeder M R.1987. Reverse flow in turbidity currents: the role of internal solitons. Sedimentology, 34(6): 1143-1155. [134] Patacci M,Haughton P D W,McCaffrey W D.2015. Flow behavior of ponded turbidity currents. Journal of Sedimentary Research, 85(8): 885-902. [135] Paull C K,Talling P J,Maier K L,Parsons D,Xu J P,Caress D W,Gwiazda R,Lundsten E M,Anderson K,Barry J P,Chaffey M,O’Reilly T,Rosenberger K J,Gales J A,Kieft B,McGann M,Simmons S M,McCann M,Sumner E J,Clare M A,Cartigny M J B.2018. Powerful turbidity currents driven by dense basal layers. Nature Communications, 9(1): 1-9. [136] Pickering K T,Hiscott R N.1991. Contained(reflected)turbidity currents from the Middle Ordovician Cloridorme Formation,Quebec,Canada: an alternative to the antidune hypothesis. Deep-Water Turbidite Systems: 89-110. [137] Pickering K T,Underwood M B,Taira A.1992. Open-ocean to trench turbidity-current flow in the Nankai Trough: flow collapse and reflection. Geology, 20(12): 1099-1102. [138] Piper D J W,Normark W R.1983. Turbidite depositional patterns and flow characteristics,Navy Submarine Fan,California Borderland. Sedimentology, 30(5): 681-694. [139] Pizzi M,Lonergan L,Whittaker A C,Mayall M.2020. Growth of a thrust fault array in space and time: an example from the deep-water Niger delta. Journal of Structural Geology, 137: 104088. [140] Pizzi M,Whittaker A C,Lonergan L,Mayall M,Mitchell W H.2021. New statistical quantification of the impact of active deformation on the distribution of submarine channels. Geology, 49(8): 926-930. [141] Pizzi M,Whittaker A C,Mayall M,Lonergan L.2023. Structural controls on the pathways and sedimentary architecture of submarine channels: new constraints from the Niger Delta. Basin Research, 35(1): 141-171. [142] Plenderleith G E,Dodd T J H,McCarthy D J.2022. The effect of breached relay ramp structures on deep-lacustrine sedimentary systems. Basin Research, 34(3): 1191-1219. [143] Pohl F.2019. Turbidity currents and their deposits in abrupt morphological transition zones. Doctoral dissertation of Utrecht University: 1-93. [144] Pohl F,Eggenhuisen J T,Cartigny M J B,Tilston M C,de Leeuw J,Hermidas N.2020. The influence of a slope break on turbidite deposits: an experimental investigation. Marine Geology, 424: 106160. [145] Pohl F,Eggenhuisen J T,Cartigny M J B,Tilston M.2022. Initation of deposition in supercritical turbidity currents downstream of a slope break. Eartharxiv. https://doi.org/10.31223/X5M35X [146] Pope E L,Cartigny M J B,Clare M A,Talling P J,Lintern D G,Vellinga A,Hage S,Açikalin S,Bailey L,Chapplow N,Chen Y,Eggenhuisen J T,Hendry A,Heerema C J,Heijnen M S,Hubbard S M,Hunt J E,McGhee C,Parsons D R,Simmons S M,Stacey C D,Vendettuoli D.2022. First source-to-sink monitoring shows dense head controls sediment flux and runout in turbidity currents. Science Advances, 8(20): eabj3220. [147] Porebski S J,Meischner D,Gorlich K.1991. Quaternary mud turbidites from the South Shetland Trench(West Antarctica): recognition and implications for turbidite facies modelling. Sedimentology, 38(4): 691-715. [148] Postma G,Cartigny M J B,Kleverlaan K.2009. Structureless,coarse-tail graded Bouma Ta formed by internal hydraulic jump of the turbidity current? Sedimentary Geology, 219(01-04): 1-6. [149] Postma G,Cartigny M J B.2014. Supercritical and subcritical turbidity currents and their deposits: a synthesis. Geology, 42(11): 987-990. [150] Postma G,Kleverlaan K,Cartigny M J B.2014. Recognition of cyclic steps in sandy and gravelly turbidite sequences,and consequences for the Bouma facies model. Sedimentology, 61(7): 2268-2290. [151] Prather B E,Booth J R,Steffens G S,Craig P A.1998. Classification,lithologic calibration,and stratigraphic succession of seismic facies of intraslope basins,deep-water Gulf of Mexico. AAPG Bulletin, 82: 701-728. [152] Ravnås R,Steel R J.1998. Architecture of marine rift-basin successions. AAPG Bulletin, 82: 110-146. [153] Rodriguez C R,Jackson C A L,Rotevatn A,Bell R E,Francis M.2018. Dual tectonic-climatic controls on salt giant deposition in the Santos Basin,offshore Brazil. Geosphere, 14: 215-242. [154] Rodriguez C R,Jackson C A L,Bell R E,Rotevatn A,Francis M.2021. Deep-water Reservoir distribution on a salt-influenced slope,Santos Basin,offshore Brazil. AAPG Bulletin,105(8): 1679-1720. [155] Rothwell R G,Pearce T J,Weaver P P E.1992. Late quaternary evolution of the Madeira abyssal plain,canary basin,NE Atlantic. Basin Research, 4(2): 103-131. [156] Rottman J W,Simpson J E,Hunt J C R,Britter R E.1985. Unsteady gravity current flows over obstacles: some observations and analysis related to the phase II trials. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 11: 325-340. [157] Schlische R W.1995. Geometry and origin of fault-related folds in extensional settings. AAPG Bulletin, 79(11): 1661-1678. [158] Sequeiros O E,Spinewine B,Garcia M H,Beaubouef R T,Sun T,Parker G.2009. Experiments on wedge-shaped deep sea sedimentary deposits in minibasins and/or on channel levees emplaced by turbidity currents. Part I. Documentation of the flow. Journal of Sedimentary Research, 79(8): 593-607. [159] Simpson J E.1982. Gravity currents in the laboratory,atmosphere,and ocean. Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics, 14(1): 213-234. [160] Sinclair H D,Tomasso M.2002. Depositional evolution of confined turbidite basins. Journal of Sedimentary Research, 72: 451-456. [161] Slootman A,Cartigny M J B.2020. Cyclic steps: review and aggradation-based classification. Earth-Science Reviews, 201: 102949. [162] Snyder W H,Thompson R S,Eskridge R E,Lawson R E,Castro I P,Lee J T,Hunt J C R,Ogawa Y.1985. The structure of strongly stratified flow over hills: dividing-streamline concept. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 152: 249-288. [163] Soutter E L,Bell D,Cumberpatch Z A,Ferguson R A,Spychala Y T,Kane I A,Eggenhuisen J T.2021. The influence of confining topography orientation on experimental turbidity currents and geological implications. Frontiers in Earth Science, 8: 540633. [164] Spinewine B,Sequeiros O E,Garcia M H,Beaubouef R T,Sun T,Savoye B,Parker G.2009. Experiments on wedge-shaped deep sea sedimentary deposits in minibasins and/or on channel levees emplaced by turbidity currents. Part Ⅱ. Morphodynamic evolution of the wedge and of the associated bedforms. Jour
