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《Bulletin of Mineralogy, Petrology and Geochemistry》
JOPC 2017 Vol.19 Number 1
2017, Vol.19 Num.1
Online: 2017-02-01
MULTI-ORIGIN OF SOFT-SEDIMENT DEFORMATION STRUCTURES AND SEISMITES
LITHOFACIES PALAEOGEOGRAPHY AND SEDIMENTOLOGY
ACADEMIC DISCUSSION
MULTI-ORIGIN OF SOFT-SEDIMENT DEFORMATION STRUCTURES AND SEISMITES
1
Feng Zengzhao
deformation structures and seismites”[J]. JOURNAL OF PALAEOGEOGRAPHY(Chinese Edition), 2017,19(1): 1-6>')" href="#">
A successful symposium of “Multi-origin of soft-sediment
deformation structures and seismites”
The symposium was successfully held in September 24,2016 at Henan Polytechnic University,Jiaozuo,Henan Province,China. Many geologists in China attended this symposium,and they enthusiatically discussed the problem of soft-sediment deformation structures(SSDS),seismites etc. the products of this symposium are as follows: (1)The terms “SSDS”and “Multi-origin of SSDS”were accepted by numerous geologists. (2)The definition of seismites by Seilacher(1969),i.e., “fault-graded beds interpreted as seismites”,should be obsoleted,however,the definition by many geologists today,i.e.,“the seismites are the beds with SSDS really induced by earthquakes”,should not be obsoleted and should be retained. (3)The term “seismites”should be strictly restricted to the beds with SSDS that are really induced by earthquakes. (4)“Zhenjiyan”(震积岩)is a mistranslated term of“seismites”and should not be uesd any more. If some geologists would like to use the term of “Zhenjiyan”in the future,they should define it again and point out that it is not the Chinese translation of the term of “seismites”. (5)The clastic injections are also with multi-origin,and they cannot definitely be the seismites and may not be the exact criteria of in-situ earthquakes. (6)The most important product of this symposium is that the phenomenon of almost one viewpoint of the researches of SSDS and seismites in China has been changed eventually.
2017 Vol. 19 (1): 1-6 [
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7
Feng Zengzhao Bao Zhidong Zheng Xiujuan Wang Yuan
Researches of soft-sediment deformation structures and seismites in China: A brief review
During the past 30 years(1987-2016),a great progress has been made in researches of soft-sediment deformation structures(SSDS),seismites and palaeoearthquakes in China. However,the research thought of this academic field is not open-minded. It is almost with one viewpoint,i.e.,almost all the papers published in journals of China considered the beds with SSDS as seismites. On the other hand,the authors are very glad to learn that the professors and students of China University of Petroleum(East China)have proposed different academic viewpoints on the origin of SSDS in Lingshan Island,Qingdao,Shandong Province,China. It is a very active academic atmosphere. The authors?? ideas are as follows: (1)The SSDS are sedimentary structures with multi-origin. The term “SSDS”is a good sedimentary and geological term and should be utilized continually. (2)The term “seismites”is a term which is definitely assigned to the beds with SSDS induced by earthquakes. It is one type of the beds with SSDS. It is not equal to SSDS. Some geologists suggested obsoleting the term “seismites”. (3)“Zhenjiyan”(震积岩)is a mistranslated term of“seismites”and should not be uesd any more. (4)Since the “seismites”and “Zhenjiyan”have been used for a long time in China and other countries,these problems should be diacussed and determined by geologists in China and other countries.
2017 Vol. 19 (1): 7-12 [
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13
Feng Zengzhao
Preface of the Chinese version of “The seismite problem”
During the past 30 years(1987-2016),a great progress has been made in researches of soft-sediment deformation structures(SSDS)and seismites in China. However,the research thought of the academic field was not open-minded. It was almost with one viewpoint, i.e., almost all the papers and books of this field published in China considered the beds with SSDS as seismites. In order to change the phenomenon of one viewpoint,Feng et al.(2016)wrote a paper “Researches of soft-sediment deformation structures and seismites in China—A brief review”as “to cast a brick to attract the jade”,emailed this paper to many geologists in China and other countries,and invited them to write papers for the symposium of “Multi-origin of soft-sediment deformation structures and seismites”,to orally present their papers at the symposium,and to discuss the problems of SSDS and seismites.
“The seismite problem”by Prof. Shanmugam is the first paper that we have received from those geologists invited by us. It is an excellent paper that covers 153 years researches of geologists worldwide and has 268 references. It is beneficial to the researches of SSDS and seismites in China. The most important contribution of this paper is to challenge and negate the term “seismites”introduced by Seilacher(1969). Chinese geologist translated the term “seismites”into “震积岩”(Zhenjiyan)(the beds induced by earthquake and sedimentation). It is a mistranslated term. Whether the term “seismites”should be obsoleted or not,and whether the term “震积岩”(Zhenjiyan)should not be used any more,these problems should be discussed and determined by numerous geologists in China and other countries,and should be determined by geological practice. Another important contribution of “The seismite problem”is introduction of triggers and emphasis of liquefaction. 21 triggers and 2 types of soft-sediment constitute the theoretical foundation of the formation process of SSDS. If we utilize the method of “On contradiction”by Tse-Tung Mao(Mao,1937),study the formation process of SSDS in which there are many contradictions,and devote every effort to finding its principal contradiction,the SSDS can reveal something about the triggers, i.e., can reveal something about the origin of SSDS.
2017 Vol. 19 (1): 13-17 [
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19
G. Shanmugam, Feng Zengzhao, Liu Min
The seismite problem
During a period of 82 years(1931-2013),39 genetic terms were introduced for various deposits. Of the 39 terms,only 10 are meaningful in understanding the true depositional origin(
e.g
.,turbidites),the remaining 29 are just jargons(
e.g
., seismites,tsunamites,
etc.
)
.
The genetic term “seismites”,introduced by Seilacher(1969)for recognizing palaeoearthquakes in the sedimentary record,is a misnomer. The term was introduced in haste,based on an examination of a single exposure of the Miocene Monterey Formation(10,m)in California,without a rigorous scientific analysis. The fundamental problem is that earthquake is a triggering mechanism,not a depositional process. Type of triggers cannot be recognized in the ancient sedimentary record because evidence for triggers is not preserved by nature. Soft-sediment deformation structures(SSDS),commonly used as the criteria for interpreting seismites,are a product of liquefaction. However,liquefaction can be induced by any one of 21 triggers,which include earthquakes,meteorite impacts,tsunamis,sediment loading,among others. Brecciated clasts,typically associated with earthquake-induced deposits in the Dead Sea Basin,are also common depositional products of debris flows(
i.e
.,synsedimentary product unrelated to earthquakes). Also,various types of SSDS,such as duplex-like structures and clastic injections,can be explained by synsedimentary processes unrelated to earthquakes. Case studies of sandstone petroleum reservoirs worldwide,which include Gulf of Mexico,North Sea,Norwegian Sea,Nigeria,Equatorial Guinea,Gabon,and Bay of Bengal,reveal that there is compelling empirical evidence for sediment loading being the primary cause of SSDS. The Krishna-Godavari Basin,located on the eastern continental margin of India,is ideal for sediment failures by multiple triggering mechanisms where overpressure and liquefaction have led to multi-origin SSDS. Because tsunamis and meteorite impacts are important phenomena in developing extensive deposits,lateral extent of SSDS cannot be used as a unique distinguishing attribute of earthquakes. For these reasons,the genetic term “seismites”,which has no redeemable scientific value,is obsolete.
2017 Vol. 19 (1): 19-46 [
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65
Du Yuansheng, Yu Wenchao
Earthquake-caused and non-earthquake-caused soft-sediment deformations
Earthquake event deposit(seismites)is a “hot spot”in modern sedimentary geological study. Earthquake-caused soft-sediment deformations are easily confused with non-earthquake-caused soft-sediment deformations. This paper discusses earthquake-caused and non-earthquake-caused (ice melting process,natural gas hydrate leakage,hydrofracturing,slide,slump,debris flow,liquefiedsoft-sediment deformations) soft-sediment deformations and relationship between synsedimentary,penecontemporaneous earthquake-caused and non-earthquake-caused soft-sediment deformations.
2017 Vol. 19 (1): 65-72 [
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73
Zhong Jianhua Ni Liangtian Hao Bing Sun Ningliang Liu Chuang Luo Ke Chen Bin Liu Shengxin Shao Zhufu
Discovery of large-scale dish-like structures of the Lower Cretaceous in Ordos Basin and its geological significance
A special soft-sediment deformation structure(SSDS),which looks very similar to the disk structure,was discovered in the Lower Cretaceous in the northern Ordos Basin. It mainly occurs in the roadside outcrops along the National Highway G109 from the Ordos City to Hangjinqi(over 100,km). It is a set of yellow-brown or gray-white medium-thick layered conglomerate or sandy conglomerate.Due to the concave-down shape in the vertical section,it is called “dish-like structure”here. Generally,it has the following features: (1)The scale is usually large. A small dish-like structure is about 1-3,m wide,and 0.5~1.5,m high;while a large one is about 5~6,m wide,with a maximum of nearly 10,m wide,and mostly 1~1.5,m high,some can be even 2,m high; (2)The edge tilting angle differs among 45°~90°,even reverses;(3)Laterally,the space among different dish-like structures is filled with liquefied sediments caused by escape water discharge,and shows a funnel or an inverse triangle shape in a vertical section;(4)The long axes of gravels along a dish-like structure edge tend to beparallelto the flow direction;(5)It is often associated with sandstone vein,liquefied vein,soft-deformation bedding,or soft-deformation fold,
etc
.;(6)Its bottom is mostly deposited with a lacustrine brownish red mudstone or sandy mudstone,which is normally massive and fragile due to liquefaction and flow activity.Based on the above-mentioned features,it is thought that the dish-like structure was formed by escape water,which was caused by intensive earthquake of magnitude of 8 or even 9-10. This earthquake is possibly related to the strong tectonic movements during the Mesozoic in the northern Ordos Basin.
2017 Vol. 19 (1): 73-88 [
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89
Yan Jihua, Jiao Yuxi, Chen Shiyue, Deng Yuan, Pu Xiugang
Soft-sediment deformation structures in deepwater fine-grained sedimentary rocks of the Member 2 of Eocene Kongdian Formation,Cangdong sag
The soft-sediment deformation structures in fine-grained sedimentary rocks of deepwater lacustrine are mainly developed in strata of mudstone and micritic carbonate rocks. Most of the soft-sediment deformation structures are prone to be ignored in the core observation because of the small size(microscopic scale). The authors take Well G108-8 in the Member 2 of Eocene Kongdian Formation in Cangdong sag as research object to identify the synsedimentary micro fracture,liquefied vein,micro fold deformation,micro weight deformation,random deformation and other types of soft-sediment deformation structures through the intensive microscopic observation and elaborate core description. The soft-sediment deformation structures formed in deepwater fine-grained sedimentary rocks in the study area overall have characteristics like small scale,no association of obvious gravity flow sand body in vertical,in situ origin,sedimentary laminae developed and so on. The formation mechanism of soft-sediment deformation structures can be divided into the overlying stress unloading,lateral extrusion stress and internal stress release from the view point of the styles of stress adjustment,and the different formation mechanisms response to multiple changes of sedimentary environments. The research of soft-sediment deformation structures formed in deepwater fine-grained sediments of lacustrine can reconstruct the changes of ancient sedimentary environments and predict the gravity flow direction. It also has a great guiding significance to oil and gas exploration in the deepwater fine-grained sedimentary rocks.
2017 Vol. 19 (1): 89-98 [
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99
Zhang Banghua, Tian Hongshui, A.J.van Loon
Earthquake-induced soft sediment deformations and their trace-element information in the Neoproterozoic Yishu Strait
The Yishu Strait is a region of 60~90,km wide and 300,km long that is located at the western side of the Changyi-Dadian Fault of the Tanlu Fault Zone,which extent is essentially as same as that of the middle segment of the Tanlu Fault Zone. During the Neoproterozoic,littoral neritic sediments composed of terrigenous clastics,clays and carbonates were deposited in the basin. These sediments belong stratigraphically to the Tumen Group from the Qingbaikou to Sinian. A variety of soft-sediment deformation structures(SSDS)were identified from the Tumen Group,including dikes or veins of liquefied sand,load cast structures,flame structures,ball-and-pillow structures,soft boudinages,diapirs,slumps and synsedimentary faults. They occur in the Nanhua Tongjiazhuang Formation(which consists of quartz sandstones,marls and shales),the Sinian Fulaishan Formation(which consists of fine sandstones and silty sandstones interbedded with shales)and the Shiwangzhuang Formation(with mainly carbonate rocks,interbedded in the lower part with sandy shales)of the Tumen Group. They are records of seismic events,
i.e.
seismites,which were related to tectonic tension and seismic activity in the Paleo-Tanlu Fault Zone. Strong earthquakes caused by the rifting of the strait basin was the dynamic trigger mechanism responsible for the formation of the SSDS during the mid-late stage of the Neoproterozoic(approx. 800-600,Ma). Because of the joint occurrence of microspar calcite veins(molar tooth structures)and seismogenic soft-sediment deformation structures(such as load casts,flames,boudinage features and synsedimentay faults),incombination with the results of earthquake-simulation experiments, it must be deduced that the micro-spar calcite veins represent most probably veins of fluidized saturated lime-mud(a water-saturated sediment consisting of fine calcite particles)in the Shiwangzhuang Formation. The results of trace-element analyses show that
w
(La)/
w
(Sc) and the
w
(La)/
w
(Th) ratios in the seismites are higher than the average ratios in the upper continental crust and in normal sedimentary layers,whereas the
w
(Th)/
w
(Sc) ratio is lower. The Ni and Cr content in seismites is also higher than in the upper continental crust and in normal sedimentary layers. These characteristics of the trace-elements reflect the instability of the basin basement,rapid deposition,and the mixing with elements from deep sources. A series of seismite with soft-sediment deformation structures in the Tumen Group once more prove the existence and activity of the paleo-Tanlu Fault Zone. The seismic events recorded by these seismites might also be considered as a response to the Tsinning tectonics and even to the breakup of the Rodinia supercontinent.
2017 Vol. 19 (1): 99-116 [
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117
Yang Wentao Wang Min
Soft-sediment deformation structures from the Upper Triassic Taishanmiao Formation of the Nanzhao Basin in Henan Province and their palaeogeographic significances
A lot of soft-sediment deformation structures,including synsedimentary faults,liquefied homogeneous layers and water escape veins,diapirs,plastic deformation,cataclasites and large load structures,occurred in the Upper Triassic Taishanmiao Formation of the Nanzhao Basin in Henan Province. They mainly cluster together in the middle part of deep lacustrine deposits,which is the transitional zone between the lower deep water and the upper shallow water. Most of the soft￣sediment deformation structures are preserved in turbidites,except for the synsedimentary faults in shales. The major trigger mechanism of the soft-sediment deformation structures is the palaeoearthquake,although the depositional process of turbidite may play a role. The liquefied,plastic and brittle deformation structures are considered as the indicater of the high magnitude palaeoearthquake,which record the intense orogenic movements of the Qinling orogen during the Late Triassic. With the thrusting of the Qinling orogen,the Nanzhao Basin was uplifted,whereas the synchronous Jiyuan Basin,adjacent to the north,was subsided. They most likely represent the wedgetop depozone and the foredeep depozone of the foreland basin system respectively.
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129
Zhu Meng, Li Dewei, Li Shu, Liu Demin, Luo Wenxing
Chronology test and its significance of ancient earthquakes in the Pleistocene in southwestern margin of Qaidam Basin
The southwestern margin of the Qaidam Basin was intensely affected by a series of faulting movement of the Neocene in the north of Kunlun Mountain,and developed serious soft sediment deformation structure such as load structures,flame structures,ball-and-pillow structures,seismic breccias,ground fissure,vibrational liquefaction deformation structure and synsedimentary micro-fault faults. The regional geological survey,the measured sections and sample tests all analysis that there were three strong uplift of mountains in 1.8-1.2 Ma,0.8Ma and 0.15Ma,these uplift events were accompanied by a strong ancient seismic activity. As the sedimentary and structural response in the uplift event,it formed a series of typical continental facies interplate seismites and the construction signs of seismites. It has a important significance to research the interplate uneven uplift of the Qinghai￣Tibet Plateau and relationship among tectonic uplift,earthquake,deposition effects.
2017 Vol. 19 (1): 129-138 [
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139
Chen Junfei, Zhang Changmin, Zhu Rui, Yang Bo, Yan Qi, Lu Xiaolin, Zhu Aiguo
Physical simulation and mechanism analysis of soft￣sediment slump deformation
Soft￣sediment slump deformation is a geological phenomenon,which is significant in analyzing regional geology history and directing petroleum prospecting. So it became valued by scholars in geoscience rapidly in recent years. However,most studies are qualitative descriptions based on observations in the field,and the process of deformation and genetic mechanism were less. A set of simulation device and the complete experimental program has been designed to simulate soft￣sediment slump deformation driven by gravity under the background of slope. The materials with different viscosity to simulate strata were used in the experiment,and the angle of the box was changed to simulate the angle variation of the stratum many times. Then the evolution model of soft￣sediment slump deformation were summarized: At the beginning of the deformation,stratum upheaval occurred gradually;as the slope become steeper,in turn,slump folds develop into round-hinged folds and then tight isoclinal folds. After faults formed,folds develop into deformation like rootless isoclinal folds and sheath folds,and the deformation continues till strata come to be stable. The deformation mechanism of the soft￣sediment slump deformation was analyzed: Driven by gravity soft￣sediments slide down along the slope, and the deformation was caused by the shear effect between layers.
2017 Vol. 19 (1): 139-146 [
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LITHOFACIES PALAEOGEOGRAPHY AND SEDIMENTOLOGY
147
Ma Pengjie, Lin Chengyan, Zhang Shiqi, Dong Chunmei, Wei Mengji
An overview on study of chlorite films in clastic reservoirs
Chlorite films were common in clastic rock reservoirs,and their inhibiting overgrowth of quartz and influence on reservoir properties are research focus at home and abroad. Study history of chlorite films was reviewed and the current research results were summarized,including micro-morphological occurrence,timing and mechanism of chlorite growth,controlling factors,their inhibiting overgrowth of quartz and influence on reservoir properties. Results show that: (1)Most of the discovered chlorite films are Fe-rich with “two layers structure”following Ostwald processes. The inner part adjacent to grain is finer-crystalline chlorite which is mainly parallel to the grain surface,and the outer part near pore space is coarser-crystalline which is generally perpendicular to the grain surface. Fe-rich clay films,precursor minerals of the inner part,will recrystallize in the eogenetic stage,and continue to precipitate based on the incipient chlorite films. (2)Ferromagnesian minerals,like volcanic materials(volcanic debris and ash)and dark minerals(biotite and amphibole),are the main sources of chlorite films,and their enrichment are closely related to hydrodynamic facies,such as the subaqueous distributary channel and mouth bar in the deltaic front. (3)The growth morphology of pore-lining chlorite films is affected by hydrocarbon injection in diffident places. (4)Chlorite films help to protect the intergranular pore,but easily damage the pore-throat connectivity. Finally,existing problems and research trend on chlorite films were proposed.
2017 Vol. 19 (1): 147-159 [
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161
Huang Wei, He Youbin, Li Hua, Liu Zhuruizhi
Characteristics and influencing factors of contour current deposits in the Upper Ordovician Zhaolaoyu Formation in Fuping area of Shaanxi Province
The Upper Ordovician Zhaolaoyu Formation in Fuping area of Shaanxi Province developed contour current deposits. On the basis of the section measured in field survey,the smooth surface rock,rock thin sections and geochemical data,integrated with previous researches,the authors carried out detailed studies of the types of contourites,the contourite sequences and the influencing factors of contour current deposits. The results show that: (1)The contourites can be classified into two types,
i.e.
the calcilutitic contourite and the calcisiltitic contourite, and two types of contourite sequences were identified,a single contourite sequence and a calcisiltitic-calcilutitic contourite sequence;(2)As the temperature of contour current water mass gets lower and the salinity gets higher,the contour current strength becomes greater;(3)When the temperature of contour current water mass changes from high to low,then to high, and the salinity of the contour current water mass changes from low to high,then to low, the contourite sequences changes from fine to coarse and then to fine;(4)Larger palaeowater depth,drier and hotter paleoclimate,and lower paleosalinity were favorable for the development of contour current and contour current deposits.
2017 Vol. 19 (1): 161-174 [
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ACADEMIC DISCUSSION
175
Hu Xiumian
A misunderstanding in provenance analysis: Sand changes of mineral,roundness, and size in flowing-water transportation
There is a big misunderstanding in the community of Chinese sedimentologists and was written into the textbooks since 1970s,that is,“during sediment transport in flowing water,unstable minerals will be eliminated,while the surviving minerals become rounded progressively,and minerals sizes get smaller”. This idea was wrongly applied in sandstone provenance analysis. This paper overviewed the literatures over one century on this topic,and introduced the research advances of modern river sand studies,especially on the physic controls of sand mineral,roundness,size during transportation. Numerous studies in big rivers sands in the world indicated that the unstable minerals such as olivine,pyroxene,amphibole,feldspars and lithic grains survive in thousands of kilometers transportation,while the sand size do not get smaller and sand roundness do not increase with distance downstream. Therefore,the idea to infer distance of provenance based on the amount of unstable minerals,size,and roundness of sandstones is not based on scientific investigation,and should be corrected in the textbooks.
2017 Vol. 19 (1): 175-184 [
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